To question this assumption, to suggest innovation, or to promote the adoption of foreign ideas was viewed as tantamount to heresy. The imperial Neo-Confucian scholars accepted as axiomatic the cultural superiority of Chinese civilization and the position of the empire at the hub of their perceived world. The centuries of peace and self-satisfaction dating back to Ming times had encouraged little change in the attitudes of the ruling elite. The success of the Qing dynasty in maintaining the old order proved a liability when the empire was confronted with growing challenges from seafaring Western powers. Strained resources, pressure by European powers, and severe flooding wracked China's strength. New farming techniques, including the introduction of potatoes and maize from America, proved too little to keep pace with its population growth. The country had difficulty keeping pace with industrialized countries. This period proved, however, to be China's zenith. With 300,000,000 people, it was the world's most populous and, arguably, wealthiest country. The Manchu emperors also supported Chinese literary and historical projects of enormous scope the survival of much of China's ancient literature is attributed to these projects. The Neo-Confucian philosophy, emphasizing the obedience of subject to ruler, was enforced as the state creed. Although Chinese were barred from the highest offices, Chinese officials predominated over Manchu officeholders outside the capital, except in military positions. The Manchus continued the Confucian civil service system. They continued the Confucian court practices and temple rituals, over which the emperors had traditionally presided. Realizing that to dominate the empire they would have to do things the Chinese way, the Manchus retained many institutions of Ming and earlier Chinese derivation. In many government positions a system of dual appointments was used-the Chinese appointee was required to do the substantive work and the Manchu to ensure Han loyalty to Qing rule.Īlthough the Manchus were not Han Chinese and were strongly resisted, especially in the south, they had assimilated a great deal of Chinese culture before conquering China Proper. Intermarriage between the two groups was forbidden. Han Chinese were prohibited from migrating into the Manchu homeland, and Manchus were forbidden to engage in trade or manual labor. Ever suspicious of Han Chinese, the Qing rulers put into effect measures aimed at preventing the absorption of the Manchus into the dominant Han Chinese population. For a long time Chinese people weren't even permitted to settle in the Manchu homeland. They retained their own language and fashions, lived apart, and married other Manchus. The Manchu kept themselves largely separated from the Chinese. Thus, in 1651 the Emperor began to govern without a regency, and ordered the Six Boards to have their numbers doubled, so that there should be a Mantchu and a Chinese in every post. The major adjustment was that all positions were held jointly by one Manchu and one Chinese, with the Manchu having the final say. The Qing Dynasty adopted the systems of administration of the Ming Dynasty with minor adjustments. Ch'ing emperors were autocratic, controlling almost completely the administration's bureaucracy. The dynastic title chosen was that of Tai Ch'mg, or Great Pure Dynasty. As the Manchus quashed resistance, they confiscated land and declared a new dynasty by 1673. To help restore order after the Ming Dynasty's last emperor hanged himself, the Chinese invited foreign Manchu soldiers into their country. Chinese History - 1644-1912 AD - Qing / Ch'ing (Manchu) Dynasty
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